Scope of Managerial Economics

Q1. Yes. Firms represent a combination of people, physical assets, and information (financial, technical, marketing, and so on). People directly involved include stockholders, managers, workers, suppliers, and customers. Businesses use scarce resources that would otherwise be available for other purposes, pay income and other taxes, provide employment opportunities, and are responsible for much of the material well-being of our society. Thus, all of society is indirectly involved in the firm’s operation. Firms exist because they are useful in the process of allocating resources –producing and distributing goods and services.As such, they are basically economic entities Q2. A. The most direct effect of a requirement to install new pollution control equipment would be an increase in the operating cost component of the valuation model. Secondary effects might be expected in the discount rate due to an increase in regulatory risk, and in the revenue function if consumers re act positively to the installation of the pollution control equipment in production facilities. B. All three major components of the valuation model–the revenue function, cost function, and the discount rate–are likely to be affected by an increase in advertising.Revenues and cost will both increase as output is expanded. The discount rate may be affected if the firm's profit outlook changes significantly because of increased demand (growth) or if borrowing is necessary to fund a rapid expansion of plant and equipment to meet increased demand. C. The primary effect of newer and more efficient production equipment is a reduction in the total cost component of the valuation model. Secondary effects on firm revenues could also be important if lower costs make price reductions possible and result in an increase in the quantity demanded of the firm's products.Likewise, the capitalization rate or discount factor can be affected by the firm’s changing prospects. D. The time pattern of revenues is affected by such a pricing decision to raise prices in the near term. This will alter production relationships and investment plans, and affect the valuation model through the cost component and capitalization factor. E. A general lowering of interest rates leads to a reduction in the cost of capital or discount rate in the valuation model. F. Higher rates of inflation, leading to an increase in the discount rate, cause the present value of a constant income stream to decline.Unless the firm is able to increase product prices in order to maintain profit margins, the value of the firm falls as inflation and the discount rate increases. Of course, the economic effects of inflation on the economic value of the firm are complex, involving both asset and liability valuations, so determining the overall effect of inflation on the economic value of individual firms is a difficult task Q3. The economic profit concept provides the most appropriate basis for evalu ating the operations of a business since it allows for a risk-adjusted normal rate of return on all capital devoted to the enterprise.Even when business profits are substantial, economic profits can sometimes be negative given the effects of risk, inflation, and other factors. Substantial business profits are no guarantee to the growth, or even maintenance, of  capital investment. In actual practice, investors adjust reported accounting data to account for additional factors that must be considered Q4. A. Interesting perspective on the characteristics of wonderful businesses has been given by legendary Wall Street investors T. Rowe Price and Warren E. Buffett.The late T. Rowe Price was founder of Baltimore-based T. Rowe Price and Associates, Inc. , one of the largest no-load mutual fund organizations in the United States, and the father of the â€Å"growth stock† theory of investing. According to Price, attractive growth stocks have low labor costs, superior research to dev elop products and new markets, a high rate of  return on stockholder's equity (ROE), elevated profit margins, rapid earnings per share (EPS) growth, lack cutthroat competition, and are comparatively immune from regulation.Omaha's Warren E. Buffett, the billionaire head of Berkshire Hathaway Inc. , also looks for companies that have strong franchises and enjoy pricing flexibility, high ROE, high cash flow, owner-oriented management, and predictable earnings that are not natural targets of regulation. Like Price, Buffett has profited enormously through his investments. To apply Price's and Buffett's investment criteria successfully, business managers and investors must be sensitive to fundamental economic and demographic trends.Perhaps the most obvious of these is the aging of the population. Health-care demands will continue to soar. In recognition of this fact, investors have bid up the shares of companies offering prescription drugs, health care, and health-care cost containment (e. g. , home health agencies). Perhaps less obvious is that an aging and increasingly wealthy population will save growing amounts for their children’s education and retirement. This bodes well for mutual fund operators, insurance companies, and other firms that offer distinctive financial services.As the overall population continues to enjoy growing income, spending on leisure activities is apt to grow; companies that offer distinctive goods and services in this area will do well. Helping well-heeled customers have fun has always been a good business. Productivity enhancement to combat economic stagnation is also likely to be a major thrust during the coming decade. In this area, it is perhaps easier to pick likely beneficiaries of emerging technologies than it is to chart the future course of technical advance.For example, catalog retailers, long-distance and cellular phone companies, and credit card providers are all major beneficiaries of the rapid pace of advance in com puter and information technology. Similarly, major broadcasters, cable TV companies, movie makers, and software providers are all prone to benefit from increasingly user-friendly technology for leisure-time activities. B. The American Express Company, Coca-Cola, Procter & Gamble, and Wells Fargo are well-known examples of major common stock holdings of Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway, Inc.Each of Berkshire's major holdings are large capital-intensive companies with long operating histories of above-average rates of return. Like any really good business, they display a wise use of assets as indicated by an average ROE that is well above typical norms. Enhancing the attractiveness of these companies is the fact that they also display above-average annual rates of growth in stockholders’ equity. Thus, they can all be described as beneficiaries of high-margin growth. As is often the case, attractive financial and operating statistics reflect essentially attractive economic ch aracteristics of each company.The American Express Company is a premier travel and financial services firm that is strategically positioned to benefit from aging baby boomers. The Coca-Cola Company, one of Berkshire's biggest and most successful holdings, typifies the concept of a wonderful business. Coca-Cola enjoys perhaps the world's strongest franchise owner-oriented management, and both predictable and growing returns. Also, the company is not subject to price or profit regulation. From the standpoint of being a wonderful business, Coca-Cola is clearly the â€Å"real thing. Newspapers, banks, and cable TV companies, such as The Washington Post Company and Wells Fargo &Company, translate immense economies of scale in production into dominating competitive advantages. They also fit Buffett's criteria for wonderful businesses. In the case of Gillette, above-normal returns stem from unique products that are designed and executed by extraordinarily capable management. The late T. R owe Price was prone to invest in high-tech companies that produced distinctive products.On the other hand, Buffett is fond of saying that he doesn’t â€Å"understand† high-tech and doesn’t want to be blown out of business by a few guys â€Å"working in a garage somewhere. † Of course, Buffett’s thinly-veiled reference to Hewlett-Packard and the Silicon Valley revolution that was started by â€Å"two guys in a simple garage† means that Buffett clearly does understand the problems of investing in hard-to-project high-tech companies. Thus, while Buffett avoids high-tech stocks, T. Rowe Price, if he were alive today, might find compelling the advantages of high-tech companies such as Microsoft, Intel, and Cisco Systems, among others. C.Above-normal returns from investing in wonderful businesses are only possible to the extent that such advantages are not fully recognized by other investors. In the case of T. Rowe Price, early investments in Avon Products, Xerox, and IBM generated fantastic returns because Price saw their awesome potential far in advance of other investors. On the other hand, Buffett has profited by taking major positions in wonderful companies that suffer from some significant, but curable, malady. In 1991, for example, Buffett made a large investment in American Express when the company suffered unexpected credit card and real estate loan losses.When the company absorbed these losses without any lasting damage to its intrinsic profit-making ability, its stock price soared and Buffett cleaned up. Companies that are conservatively financed enjoy a similar ability to profit when an unexpected business downturn causes financially distressed rivals to sell valuable assets at bargain-basement prices . Therefore, while above-average stock-market returns provide the clearest evidence of having picked good businesses for investment, short-term results can be disappointingly average or below-average if the virtues of these good businesses are clearly recognized in the marketplace.More frustrating still is the problem of finding and investing in good businesses at attractive prices and then having to wait while conventional wisdom comes around to recognizing them as such. The overall stock  market is extremely efficient at ferreting out bargains and adjusting prices so that subsequent investors earn only a risk-adjusted normal rate of return. For individual investors seeking above-average returns, finding good businesses is a necessary first step, but they must also be incorrectly priced (too cheap). Buffett succeeds because he is unusually adept at finding high-quality bargains.

Team Work

HECS 1100 Learning Together, Working Together| Learning Set Assessment Task | By Jodie Brown, Carole Fawcett, Debbie Fairhurst, Helena Judge, Helena Bonallie and Hannah Crowther| [Pick the date] | Learning Set Poster Assessment Task Within the Learning Together Working Together tutorials we were assigned to a group and given the task of designing an A4 poster which communicated information to a specific target group. The project the group chose was an A4 poster on ‘Recognising stress in carers’ aimed at carers.The group interpreted the brief as non-paid carers having someone dependent upon them such as a mother caring for her baby or a young person caring for an elderly relative. The group originally chose the project on respect towards older people aimed at 15-19 year olds however, following a group discussion decided to change the project to recognising stress in carers. This was because the group felt that the carers topic was currently highlighted in the media and th ere was a large volume of literature available from a variety of sources.The group also felt that the respect towards elders project was quite a broad topic which could be interpreted in many different ways which may have been challenging to convey on a poster. The group preferred a poster over a leaflet as they felt it could reach a wider audience when placed anywhere rather than someone having to physically collect a leaflet. The group also thought a poster would be more eye catching, easier to read and concise for stressed busy carers who wouldn’t want to read large volumes of text. 152 wordsInitially the group did not assign specific roles to individual members as the group was only in the Forming stage (Tuckman1965), therefore, each member carried out their own individual research, gaining more knowledge on carers and the impact of stress. The team thought that different research approaches would cover all areas and allow equal input and workload from all members. The St orming stage (Tuckman1965) became evident as the resources individuals had gathered were discussed and the most relevant information was chosen.From this discussion the set decided upon the information, design and direction. This then lead into the Norming stage (Tuckman1965) where strengths and weaknesses became apparent which enabled task allocation to be easier. For example, one member having had experience in mental health initiated an idea taken from Bramham’s vulnerability bucket (date) and another member having good IT skills worked on putting the poster together based on other members inputs.These positive roles along with plant, shaper and other pos roles (138 words) Development of the group was very positive, the team progressed through Tuckman’s (1965) Stages without any conflict or problems which the learning set believed was an achievement as without this the poster would not have been produced as quickly and successfully. The main basis of the poster was decided early, giving the group plenty of time to improve and refine it with each meeting.Each member demonstrated an adult to adult relationship (Thompson 2006) with excellent communication skills throughout. As everyone became closer and felt more comfortable, it was easier to express views, portray opinions and be able to negotiate, ultimately meaning better ideas were created. Also the group was extremely open to various individual ideas which, as a result, allowed the discussions of advantages and disadvantages to reach an agreement. 131 words) The most challenging aspect of the project was that the initial idea didn’t work well on paper as it was too crowded so, it had to be adapted, without losing the concept. This took considerable time and effort however, spending this time meant that the final poster was of a higher quality. (52 words) Within the learning set respect was demonstrated throughout. This was initiated by a list of rules that were formulated at the origi nal meeting that set the basis of how each member should behave towards one another.These were adhered to during the entire project. (Appendix 1) Acknowledgment of each members strengths and weaknesses was demonstrated the ensure that others thoughts, ideas and actions were encouraged and not dismissed. Every individuals perspectives were considered when making a group decision for example, information was shared within the file exchange on the virtual leaning environment enabled the opportunity for viewpoints to be shared. 100 words) Upon reflection on Action (Schon 1983, 1987), the group would try assigning roles to each member to see whether it was more effective. The roles could be rotated around so that each member had a go at each role. Another idea upon reflection was to formulate an Action Plan with deadlines so each person could have a step by step approach to formulate. The learning set believe these ideas wouldn’t alter the final product but could possibly improve the working style. (81 words). TOTAL WORD COUNT: 802

Conflict Theory Essay

A. What is Conflict Theory? Farley (2000:73) contends that conflict theory arose primarily from the work of Marx and was continued in the work of C Wright Mills and Ralf Dahrandorf. The general underlying assumption associated with conflict theory is that society is made up of groups with competing self-interests. Often the competing groups have unequal power. People compete for resources that are in scarce supply. Generally, the resources that are in short supply involve wealth and power. Conflict theory generally consists of the following four points. 1. Conflict Built into Society Societies naturally tend toward conflict. This occurs because wealth and power are distributed unequally; therefore, different social groups have different and conflicting interests (Farley, 2000:73). 2. One Group Becomes Dominant Because competing interest groups have unequal power, one group usually becomes dominant. The dominant group then uses its power to control most or all other aspects of the social structure. The dominant group can ensure that society operates in a way that serves the interests of the dominant group. As a result the dominant group controls a vastly disproportionate share of scarce resources such as wealth and social status (Farley, 2000:73-74). 3. Consensus is Artificial When a consensus appears in a society, it is usually artificial and is unlikely to persist over the long run. A Functionalist might argue that consensus is â€Å"necessary† and is, therefore, automatically something desired by all concerned. The conflict theorist contends that a consensus in a society is either based on coercion and/or repression by the dominant group. 4. Conflict in Society is Desirable Conflict is desirable because it makes possible social change which may lead to more equitable distribution of wealth and power (Farley, 2000:74). 5. Ideology A central assumption of Marxist theory is that the distribution of wealth by  and large determines other aspects of society, such as the political system and the characteristics of culture. This includes the norms, values, and beliefs of the culture. The norms, values, and beliefs of the culture are such that they legitimize the control of wealth. Everyone, the rich and poor alike, accept the cultural beliefs as just and correct. Another term for these beliefs is IDEOLOGY. Marx, however, argued that beliefs in the dominant ideology is not in the interest of the subordinate group. Marx referred to the pattern of the subordinate group’s acceptance of an ideology that goes against it’s own self interest as false-consciousness. a. False Consciousness A consensus can also be achieved when a minority group accepts an ideology that is not in its self interest. This is false consciousness. It can occur because the dominant group exerts disproportionate control over the sources of influence and public opinion. It might also come about because the dominant group, through sheer power and force, can create an atmosphere where the subordinate group feels that resistance is futile. In either case, the apparent consensus is fundamentally unstable and is not likely to persist over time (Farley, 2000:74). b. Class Consciousness Racism can only be dealt with by changing the institutions that are the source of racism. Marx called upon the oppressed to realize how dominant ideology serves to oppress the subordinate group. Arrival at this understanding is called class-consciousness. B. Marx Karl Marx’s writings on class conflict, differing class interests, the ownership and control of the means of production, and the exploitation by one class over the other were precursors to the development of conflict theory. Marx saw class and class conflict as the moving forces in history. A dominant class owns the means of production and exploits other classes. It is then in the interests of the dominated classes to overthrow those in positions of dominance and to establish a social order more favorable to their interests (Kitano, 1985:42) (also see Farley, 2000:74-75). C. C Wright Mills and the Role of Intellectuals in Society â€Å"Only when mind has an autonomous basis, independent of power, but powerfully related to it, can  mind exert its force in the shaping of human affairs. This is democratically possible only when there exists a free and knowledgeable public, to which people of knowledge may address themselves, and to which people of power are truly responsible† (C Wright Mills, 1956) V. A Comparison of Functionalism and Conflict Theory Both perspectives can be viewed as two faces of the same society. For example, one of the basic problems facing a nonwhite individual in the functional model is that of high alienation and loss of identity. However, racial conflict, with its ideological apparatus and action system, functions to alleviate alienation and to facilitate an ethnic identity. Group solidarity is enhanced, group boundaries are clarified, and the linkage between the individual and the group is strengthened through personal commitment and social action. In time, the group identity can be extended to the larger system through communication; the individual is exposed to larger social networks and to national core values (Kitano, 1985:43). Farley (2000:75-76) provides two observations regarding the nexus between conflict and functionalist theory. He contends that a synthesis of the two theories is possible. A. Both Theories are Partially Correct Society might operate according to both perspectives. Order and stability might exist in the presence of extreme income inequality. It is possible, for example, that a given institution might serve to make society efficient while at the same time serving the interests of the dominant elite. B. Societies Go through Cycles of Stability and Conflict Societies go through cycles of stability and conflict. Under different circumstances, people behave differently. At one point in time a society may be stable and orderly, where minorities are able to get ahead through hard work. At another point, however, society might be characterized by disorder and conflict where minorities might advance only via protest and rebellion (Farley, 2000:86). VI. The Social Structural Perspective and Social Problems Functionalist and conflict people tend to disagree on two basic elements. One  revolves around the definition of the social problem. The other is the location of the problem (Farley, 2000:76). A. The Definition of Social Problems What is considered a social problem? It is human reaction that makes something a problem. 1. Functionalist For a functionalist, any thing is a problem if it threatens the smooth and efficient running of society. Conflict of most kinds is seen as problematic because conflict threatens consensus. Conflict can potentially have serious consequences if it causes the disruption of society. 2. Conflict Theory For a conflict theorist, on the other hand, social problems include things like poverty and racism and, more generally, the inequitable distribution of wealth and other scarce resources (Farley, 2000:77). B. The Location of Social Problems Where do the two perspectives place the source of social problems (Farley, 2000:77-78)? 1. Functionalist The cause of social problems for a functionalist lies predominantly in the characteristics of the disadvantaged group. For example, functionalist might argue that a minority group lacks the necessary skills that would yield the greatest rewards in society. Or, perhaps the group in question has a culture that is incompatible with the dominant culture. In either case, the burden of change is placed mostly on the disadvantaged group. 2. Conflict Theory Conflict theorists see the source of social problems as being embedded in the exploitative behavior of the dominant group. It is assumed from the conflict perspective that if someone or some group is suffering or placed in a disadvantageous position, there must be some other group (that is more powerful) that benefits from the misery of the disadvantaged group (Farley, 2000:77-78). VII. The Social Structural Perspectives  and Majority-Minority Relations Ethnic stratification refers to a system that distributes scarce resources on an unequal basis according to race and ethnicity (2000:79). A. Functionalist Theories about Majority/Minority Relations A paradox of sorts exists for the functionalists. Inequality, they argue, is desirable in society because it ensures that the most qualified people will get the most important jobs in a society. On the other hand, functionalists contend that ethnic inequality has the potential to cause serious disruption of society (Farley, 2000:78-79). 1. Inequality Functionalist would argue that inequality is necessary in order to create incentives. Some jobs are more necessary than others. They also require more training. To ensure that these jobs are filled by competent individuals, they have to provide more greater rewards. 2. Is Ethnic Stratification Necessary? A functionalist might argue that the stratification must meet some kind of societal need. The problem is that, while a society might need to be stratified (in order to ensure important jobs are filled, etc.), it is not at all clear why ethnic stratification is functional. 3. Ethnocentrism: The Source of Ethnic Stratification In order to understand ethnic stratification, one has to understand ethnocentrism, according to the functionalists (Farley, 2000:80). a. Society’s Need for Consensus Functionalist would argue that ethnocentrism in moderation is functional for a society. The explanation for this lies in society’s need for consensus and to have a shared identity. The only way a society can cooperate is when it shares basic values. Ethnocentrism contributes to this in several ways. b. Ethnic Stratification: An Unfortunate By-product An unfortunate side effect is that aggression might be also directed against an ethnic minority within the society. 4. The Elimination of Ethnic Stratification The methods advocated by functionalists to diminish the effects of ethnocentrism is to: Reduce the cultural differences between the majority and minority group Eliminate legal and other barriers set up by the dominant group which excludes minorities. Ensure that the minority groups  develop skills that would allow them to participate in a society. This approach leads to assimilation, which is the process whereby minorities are fully integrated into the system and becomes culturally similar to the majority group. (Farley, 2000:80). B. Conflict Theories about Majority/Minority Relations The conflict theories tend to see majority minority relationships as a matter of domination and exploitation. The conflict perspective is, in essence, a critique of functionalism. Many argue that functionalism is merely a justification for inequality (Farley, 2000:81). 1. Ethnic Stratification: Not an Unfortunate By-product Ethnic stratification exists because it serves the interests of the dominant elite. It occurs because of the exploitative nature of the majority group as a whole or because of the exploitative nature of a wealthy elite within the majority group (Farley, 2000:83). 2. Inequality is Inherited, Not Earned The necessity of stratification for productive purposes is also called into question. Stratification cannot act as an incentive because inequality is inherited, not earned. In order for inequality to work the way the functionalist claim, there would have to be free mobility between generations. Example: The daughter of a share cropper, who is very bright, should have the same chance of becoming a medical doctor as anyone else. 3. Planned Shortages It is also argued that the shortages found in highly demanding jobs often exist because professional organizations restrict entry into the profession — not because there is a shortage of qualified people (Farley, 2000:83). C. Varieties of Conflict Theory in Race and Ethnic Relations 1. Marxist Theories Farley (2000:85) contends that Marxists see inequality as being based mainly on class. There are two – those who own the means of production and the rest of society who works for wages. Marxist see racism as a mechanism that keeps the working class from recognizing their own interests. It divides workers. While minorities fight with each other, wages remain low and profits remain high. Marxists believe that workers would be best serves by putting aside their racial and ethnic differences and to act on their common class interests. 2. Split Labor Market Theories Split-Labor Market Theory argues that there are three classes: There owners of the means of production, higher paid laborers and lower paid laborers. The owners are interested in getting the best workers for the lowest wage. The higher paid workers, on the other hand, are trying to protect their jobs from competition from lower paid workers. One means the higher-paid workers use to protect their interests is to discriminate against lower-paid ethnic workers (Farley, 2000:85). 3. Internal Colonialism Internal colonialism theory argues that societal inequality as largely racial and ethnic (Farley, 2000:85). The dominant racial or ethnic group establishes a system of inequality for the benefit of the dominant racial or ethnic group. The oppressed (Blacks, Mexicans, Native Americans) are involuntarily brought under the rule of the dominant group. Internal colonialism argues that the dominant group promotes a racist ideology, it attacks the culture of the people who are dominated. It isolates the dominated from mainstream labor markets. The dominant group rationalizes exploitation through myths of the cultural inferiority of the oppressed. VIII. Culture of Poverty Oscar Lewis, author of La Vita (1965), coined the term â€Å"Culture of Poverty† (also see Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 1974). The essence of Culture of Poverty theory holds that poor people share deviant cultural characteristics. The poor have lifestyles that differ from the rest of society and that these characteristics perpetuate their life of poverty. According to the Culture of Poverty thesis (in Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994:173) â€Å"the poor are qualitatively different in values and that these cultural differences explain continued poverty.† The Culture of Poverty Theory is a functionalist theory. Eitzen and Baca-Zinn (1994:173) maintain that there is a strong implication embedded in the Culture of Poverty that defects in the lifestyle of the poor [cultural deprivation] perpetuate  poverty. Such defects are passed from one generation to the next. Under these circumstances it is extremely difficult for people, once trapped by the Culture of Poverty, to escape poverty. Characteristics that typify the Culture of Poverty exist across a variety of racial and ethnic groups. While these characteristics (see below) are certainly present in poverty populations, Culture of Poverty Theory leaves the impression that they typify all poor people. THAT IS A FALLACY! The following characteristics typify the culture of poverty. Some may be accurate in some settings. Some may have had explanatory powers a few decades ago, but today are no longer accurate. Some are contradictory. They all tend to present negative connotations. All are highly stereotypical. Characteristics of the Culture of Poverty 1. Parents are more permissive in raising their children. They are less verbal with their children. Family-heads display a strong disposition toward authoritarianism. 2. Children raised in poverty also have drastically different orientations in life when compared to middle-class children. There is an absence of childhood. Children experience an early initiation to sex. 3. Families often form based upon free unions or consensual marriage. This partially explains the trend toward female-headed homes. 4. The poor are more fatalistic. One might expect that a poor person would believe the following idea: â€Å"What will be will be and I can’t change it.† 5. The poor are less apt to defer gratification. Banfield argues that the essence of the poor subculture is its present-time orientation. He asserts that the poor do not know how to defer gratification (see Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994:173). 6. The poor are less interested in formal education. Source: Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994, and Farley, 1988 The Culture of Poverty theory argues that the characteristics presented above enable the poor to adapt to poverty. For example, the lack of childhood happens because sometimes poor children have to begin working at an early age. Moreover, poor children have to â€Å"hustle† to survive. There is no time to be young. To act young is a sign of weakness. The absences of privacy and competition for limited goods are self-explanatory characteristics of poverty. Perhaps the strong disposition toward authoritarianism is necessary  because of the hard choices that poverty provides. A. The Moynihan Report The Culture of Poverty is a functionalist approach to poverty. It assumes a â€Å"right† or â€Å"correct† culture and a deviant culture. The poor are poor and are likely to remain poor because their culture deviates from the norm. The Moynihan Report (1965) is an example of a study that (perhaps inadvertently) borrows aspects of the Culture of Poverty to explain African-American poverty. Its goal was to explain continued poverty in the 1960s. The Moynihan Study accurately pointed out that much of the poverty associated with the Black community was due to a history of slavery and economic oppression (unemployment). It also called attention to the necessity of altering one’s lifestyle as a means to cope with poverty. Moynihan, however, ultimately came to concentrate on the characteristics of the Black family that required changing, rather than the system of oppression that needed changing. B. A Critique of the Moynihan Report and the Culture of Poverty 1. It Blames the victim The most important criticism of the report is that it put the blame for poverty on the victim. Blaming the victim places the burden of change on the victim and removes it from society. From the Culture of Poverty perspective, poverty is viewed as the fault of the poor in that, their culture, not social injustice, causes and perpetuates poverty. The implied assumption is that until the poor changes their â€Å"culture,† no amount of government intervention will solve the problem of poverty. 2. Negative Emphasis on Female-headed Families Another objection to the Culture of Poverty thesis revolves around the negative emphasis placed upon female-headed families. Female-headed families do not ensure a life of poverty. Children of single-parent family perform well in school. They do not have greater problems with mental health. Poverty, of course, affects both. Poverty, not single-parenting, generates social problems like illiteracy and crime, not single-parenting. Furthermore, single-parent are usually women and women are placed in economically disadvantaged positions due to the structure of the economy that pays women only 68 percent the salary that it pays men. THIS IS NOT  CULTURAL. It’s SYSTEMIC. 3. The Attack on Divorce There appears, imbedded in culture of poverty theory, an attack on divorce. There is no evidence that divorce, itself, causes poverty. Sometimes divorce can lead to better social adjustment. Since 1957, as the number of divorces has risen, the percentage of people saying they are happy with their marriage has also risen from 67 percent to 80 percent (footnote missing!). People who focus on the problems associated with single-parent families also forget the positive impact of the extended family. The extended family supports single-parent families by providing grandparents, aunts, and even friends. 4. Most Black Families are Not Poor Other problems with the Moynihan Report pertain to the implied image that the majority of Black families are typically broken homes. The poverty rate for Blacks is about 30 percent. That means that 70 percent of Black families are above the poverty line. Furthermore, while focusing on the characteristics of the Black family, the Moynihan Report does not attack aspects of the social structure that put one group at a disadvantage when compared to another. With the Black family, the disadvantage flows from historically based discrimination (which included forced breakups of families while under slavery), high levels of unemployment, and welfare laws that encourage one parent families. 5. Poor People Do Not Have Radically Different Lifestyles Finally, the culture of poverty contains the assumption that families living in poverty have radically different outlooks than middle-class families. Elliot Liebow in Street Corner Man (as referenced in Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994:173) suggests that most poor people, in fact, attempt to live by society’s values. Their struggle is frustrated by externally imposed failures. Most people who are poor would prefer to escape poverty via a good job. Good jobs that poor people are eligible for are rare. Liebow suggests that the characteristics associated with the culture of poverty are those that appear when individuals try to achieve goals defined by society, but who fail to achieve society’s goals because society has not provided means to achieve those goals. These are the proverbial blocked opportunities. 6. One-Way Adaptation? Culture of Poverty proponents argue that the poor adapt to a lifestyle which allows them to deal with poverty. They tend to assume that one these lifestyles have been adopted, they become institutionalized with poor culture making it very difficult fort the poor to escape the culture of poverty. One might ask that if it is so easy to adopt to poverty lifestyles, that it might be just as easy to adopt to a middle class lifestyle one that lifestyle is provided. C. Concluding Observations Concerning the Culture of Poverty In short, rather than blaming the victim for his or her biology or for his or her culture, public policy planners might more appropriately focus their attention on the economic characteristics of society. The United States is one of the richest countries on earth. Simultaneously it has the greatest levels of inequality in the First World. Social structure, not genetics or culture causes poverty. Solutions to poverty are political. In 1973 after LBJ’s â€Å"War on Poverty† the poverty rate fell to an all-time low. One might look to other First-World counties for inspiration. Scandinavian counties, for example, have very low levels of poverty and they are culturally diverse. IX. Culture of Poverty and Welfare Policy Farley (2000:91-92) argues that this debate is directly relevant to welfare policy in the United States. [Remember: your perspective of the source of the problem influences how you perceive solutions] A. The Functionalist Perspectives From the functionalist court comes a positive and negative viewpoint. Both points of view see the existence of poverty as being related to family structure. 1. Moynihan Moynihan argues that the existence of single parent is a major cause of poverty. He contends that government programs are necessary to alleviate poverty in these homes. 2. Murray Murray, on the other hand believes that welfare makes it possible for people to survive poverty without working. He argues that welfare support reinforces the culture of poverty. B. The Conflict Perspective Conflict theorists are skeptical of both points of view. Rather than   structure being the source of poverty, structural problems, like the concentration of the poor in inner cities, is the source of poverty. While functionalist desire to rehabilitate the individual that is poor, conflict theory advocates structural solutions like job creation in inner city neighborhoods.

Dangerous sports Essay

According to personal expediencies many hobbies and interests are come and gone, but always dangerous sports and its news always had a large presence.Formula one and Heli Skiing are two of world famous and very dangerous sports, both sports have the impact and the interest around the world. Formula 1 is originated by Britain over 60 years ago and Britain already won many world titles from this sport therefore people have a high interest in this game even though this sport is very dangerous. Fatal accidences are common in Formula 1 racing, in 2002 world championship grand prix â€Å"Aytona Senna† the world famous Brazilian Formula 1 driver crashed in front of massive crowed during the race and dead on the spot. This accident’s impact in many countries to reconsider about this sport and its standers. Even after this accidence there were much fatal accidence happen in Formula 1 racing but still this sport is very famous among whole world. Heli Skiing is also famous and ver y dangerous sport, according to this sport’s history even very experience skiing players also can get serious damage or even fatal accidences during this sport. Recently world famous Michael Schumacher had ski accident and still fighting for his life and Schumacher knew that this sport is dangers but according to many articles shows that its danger makes Michael Schumacher’s interest to this sport. According to above two sports shows that dangerous sports have a major drawbacks and also in some cases it cost human life’s but my personal view argue that if all the dangerous sports can be done with high standards. For instance Formula 1 not causing much accidence after 2006 as compare to 1960 to 2002. Therefore dangerous sports also shows that with setting safety measures and appropriate high standards even very dangerous sports can be done without causing any incidence. The risks can be lessen and these sports are highly populated by more than a decade therefore cannot agree with the statement. Humans are always like to get high risks and most of high risking sports will get famous within no time therefore rather than discouraging those sports can help to lessen accidence and can increase the level of standards.

Abortion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Abortion - Essay Example In the United States of America much of the legislation relating to Abortion has been set by judicial activism i.e. in the form of court rulings. While the effort of the congress to resolve the conflict on a legal foundation is welcome, it would be prudent to question if they alone can settle so cavernous and sensitive an issue. To see how wide ranging the conflict is, simply consider the fact that the Pro-Life and Pro-Choice activists prefer different terminology in their arguments. Thus, ‘Pro-Choice’ is interpreted to mean ‘Anti- Life’ and Pro-lifers consider the terms ‘fetus’ and ‘embryo’ dehumanizing; while in the opposing camp, referring to the fetus as an ‘unborn child’ is thought to be too emotional (Wikipedia). The laws relating to abortion in this nation is derived from the Supreme Court ruling on the famous Roe Vs Wade trial. That this ruling is not accepted by all is established by the fact that there are many US states that have passed various ‘Trigger Laws’ which would come into action if and when the Roe Vs Wade ruling is overturned (Reuters). Feminists today regard anti abortionist campaign as a direct infringement on their reproductive freedom (Willis). If the human fetus is declared as a human being from the moment of conception, then it implies that all abortions irrespective of the context would amount to murder and hence would be illegal in the eyes of the law. This is a very strong moral argument and is the starting point for all debates on abortion and has attained the centre stage in most forums (Willis). Various methods of logical deduction have been used to reach from here to the final step. Thomson has conjectured a number of situations and in each has considered the ethical question of whether the life of a fetus is more important than the life of its mother. In each case that he has hypothesized, he has

Family Communication Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Family Communication - Assignment Example Second level is connected which means that the family members are experiencing some closeness with sense of belonging and loyalty. Thirdly, cohesion is a type of relationship which involves family members are striving for emotional closeness, loyalty, and togetherness with the emphasis on some individuality. Enmeshed is the last level of family communication which means that the family members are very close, loyal, and dependent and there is almost no individuality (Kathleen M. Galvin, 2012). My mom and dad have been having a good relationship between themselves and also with the other relatives. One day Mr. James my brothers teacher came home and reported that my brother Vin was not attending classes and had was always late in school. My mother disclosed all this information to father meaning that she possessed good self-disclosure characteristics. In addition to this, my mother spoke to my brother regarding the problem while we were taking supper. She explained to my brother that education was important and it defined ones future. This shows that my mother has good listening skills. To prove that my brother was a good a good listener, he looked directly at my mom. He responded to my mother’s instructions by nodding his head which is a positive feedback for someone with good listening skills. Since this day my brother has never missed

Work Placement Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Work Placement Journal - Essay Example It involved a test of character, commitment and the ability to listen to the instructions set by the Director. Some skills are not acquired at school, they boil down to morals and etiquette. In my new job, some responsibilities were delegated to me, and without certain skills I would not be able to deliver as expected. Communication skills were some of the vital skill I was expected to have. According to the University Of Kent (2013) effective communication involves the ability of expressing views and ideas confidently. As exhibited for the first practice, I had to approach the staff and ask for help with some tasks. Charlotte. L and Kidd. J (2000) and communication skills must persuading and this went a long in convincing the residents to take the alcohawk. It is expressed that for communication to be effective, one must be able to communicate as a team which was sometimes put into test when I was required to interview a new resident with a member of staff. Within a number of days my communication skills had improved, which considerably improved my telephone communication skills. Treuer. P (2011) explains that effective communication without the ability to listen leads to instructions being misunderstood. Effective listening skills involve avoiding distractions when being spoken to. Mark Twain (1898) quoted that we are supposed to listen more than we talk since we have two ears and one mouth. When listening to someone, the listener should be at ease, since which it shows the speaker, that you are keen to listen and it is also expected that the listener will be patient and willing. As illustrated by Treuer. P (2011) the speaker should not get the impression that there is